Research Page 10 - Ventura Photonics

Summary

Eisenhower’s warning about the corruption of science by government funding has come true. Climate science has been thoroughly corrupted by government largesse. The modern climate modeling fraud started with four papers, two by Manabe and Wetherald (M&W) in 1967 and 1975 and two by Hansen et al in 1976 and 1981. The main focus of this article is a detailed review of the 1981 Hansen paper (H81). This provided the foundation for the multi-trillion dollar climate fraud that we have today. It is claimed that a contrived time series of radiative forcings or changes in flux at the top of the atmosphere can be used to calculate a global mean temperature record using ‘equilibrium’ climate models. The radiative forcings are divided into anthropogenic and natural contributions. The models are rerun using just the natural forcings to create an imaginary natural baseline. The anthropogenic forcings are then manipulated to claim that they are the cause of every imaginable increase in the frequency and intensity of ‘extreme weather events’. The models are ‘tuned’ to match the temperature record using feedbacks that modify the response to the initial forcings. In particular, there is a ‘water vapor feedback’ that amplifies the initial warming produced by a ‘greenhouse gas forcing’. The climate models are compared to each other using a hypothetical doubling of the atmospheric concentration of CO₂ from 280 to 560 parts per million (ppm). The temperature increase from such a doubling is called the climate sensitivity. All of this is pseudoscientific nonsense. The first example of this approach can be found in H81 figure 5. A one dimensional radiative convective (1-D RC) model was used create an approximate match to the global mean temperature record using a combination of CO₂, volcanic aerosol and solar forcings. The fraudulent use of radiative forcings to make the climate model results appear to match the global mean temperature record continues today. The time series of the radiative forcings used in the CMIP6 model ensemble may be found in figure 2.10 of the Working Group 1 Report for the Sixth IPCC Climate Assessment, AR6.

Starting with the work of M&W in 1967, the ‘equilibrium’ climate models are fraudulent, by definition, before a single line of code is even written. This is because the simplified energy transfer assumptions used to build the models must create climate warming as a mathematical artifact in the model output. There is no ‘equilibrium average climate’ that can be perturbed by CO₂ or other ‘greenhouse gases’. As soon as the simplifying assumptions used by M&W are accepted, physical reality is abandoned and one enters the realm of computational climate fiction. Hansen and his group at NASA Goddard followed M&W into their fictional climate realm and have been playing computer games in an equilibrium climate fantasy land ever since.

M&W set out to adapt a weather forecasting model so that it could predict ‘climate’. They apparently failed to understand that the earth is not in thermal equilibrium and that the coupled non-linear equations used in a global circulation model are unstable and have no predictive capabilities over the time scales needed for climate analysis. A major justification for the M&W approach was that it provided a second stream of funding for the computers and programmers needed for both weather and climate prediction. Unfortunately, melodramatic prophecies of the global warming apocalypse became such a good source of research funding that the scientific process of hypothesis and discovery collapsed. The climate modelers rapidly became trapped in a web of lies of their own making. The second motivation was employment. After the end of the Apollo (moon landing) program in 1972, NASA was desperate for funding and a group at NASA Goddard that was using radiative transfer analysis to study planetary atmospheres jumped on the climate bandwagon [Hansen, 2000]. Later, as funding for nuclear programs decreased, some of the scientists at the old Atomic Energy Commission, by then part of the Department of Energy (DOE) also jumped on the climate bandwagon. No one bothered to look at the underlying assumptions. A paycheck was more important. They just copied and ‘improved’ the fraudulent computer code.

The only thing that has changed since 1981 is that the models have become more complex. The pseudoscientific ritual of radiative forcing, feedbacks and climate sensitivities that started with H81 continues on a massive scale today. The latest iteration is described in Chapter 7 of the IPCC WG1 AR6 Report. The two original modeling groups have now grown to about 50, all copying each other and following the same fraudulent script. Climate modeling has degenerated past scientific dogma into the Imperial Cult of the Global Warming Apocalypse. The climate models have been transformed into political models that are ‘tuned’ to give the results needed for continued government funding. The climate modelers are no longer scientists. They are prophets of the Imperial Cult who must continue to believe in their own prophesies based on forcings, feedbacks and climate sensitivity.

Introduction

The multi-trillion dollar climate fraud that we have today started in nineteenth century with the oversimplification of the climate energy transfer processes that determine the surface temperature of the earth. Two external factors then contributed to the growth of the climate fraud. As the cold war ended and available resources diminished, various government agencies such as NASA and DOE (including the National Labs) decided to jump on the climate bandwagon for additional funding. There was also a deliberate decision by various outside interests, including environmentalists and politicians to exploit the climate apocalypse to further their own causes (see Climate Posts VPCP 13, VPCP 19 and VPCP 26). The modern climate modeling fraud started with the work of Manabe and Wetherald (M&W) in 1967 [M&W, 1967]. They took the original ‘equilibrium air column’ described by Arrhenius [1896], divided it into 9 or 18 air layers and added radiative transfer and related algorithms. They also imposed a fixed relative humidity distribution that created a ‘water vapor feedback’. Anyone reading MW67 should have understood that their model had to create global warming as a mathematical artifact of the simplifying assumptions that they introduced. Has anyone seen a 24 hour average sun shining in the sky at night? M&W then went on to build a ‘highly simplified’ global circulation model (GCM) in which they incorporated the mathematical artifacts of their 1967 model into every unit cell of their GCM [M&W, 1975] (MW75). Such a model also requires the solution of large numbers of coupled non-linear equations. In 1963, Lorenz demonstrated that the solutions to such sets of equations were unstable. The GCM approach used by M&W has no predictive capability over the time scales needed for climate simulations. Weather forecasting GCMs are limited to about 12 days ahead [Lorenz, 1963, 1973].

The climate modelers at NASA started out by studying radiative transfer in planetary atmospheres, mainly Mars and Venus. On both planets, the atmospheric composition is approximately 95% CO₂. As NASA funding was reduced towards the end of the Apollo (moon landing) program that finished in 1972, these modelers began to expand their work and analyze the earth’s climate [Hansen, 2000]. They had no understanding of climate energy transfer on a rotating water planet. Melodramatic claims about climate change related to ‘runaway’ greenhouse effects or ‘air pollution’ were used to justify the extension of their radiative transfer studies to the earth’s atmosphere. They failed to conduct any model validation or ‘due diligence’ and blindly accepted the 1-D RC equilibrium air column model and the CO₂ warming dogma. They just wanted funding to continue their work on atmospheric energy transfer. They followed M&W into the equilibrium climate fantasy land and have never left.

In the 1970s, the planetary atmospheres group at NASA was part of a ‘pipeline’ that accepted graduate students with experience in radiative transfer analysis and trained them in the use of fraudulent ‘equilibrium’ climate models. As these researchers moved on to other positions outside of NASA, they took their climate modeling expertise with them. This established a closed group of ‘climate cronies’ that ‘peer reviewed’ each other’s publications and grant proposals.

At this time there was a global cooling scare that was caused by the negative or cooling phase of the AMO after1940 (see Figure 15 below). Belief in CO₂ induced global warming required an alternative explanation. Rasool and Schneider [1971] proposed an increase in aerosol concentration. At the time, they were both working at NASA Goddard. Ramanathan [1975], then working at NASA Langley, calculated a ‘greenhouse effect’ for chlorofluorcarbons. Here, he used a sensitivity of 1.425 W m^-2 K^-1 for the change in weather station temperature due to variations in the solar flux derived by Budyko [1969]. He assumed an equilibrium average climate and applied the same solar sensitivity to the change in longwave IR (LWIR) flux at the top of the atmosphere (TOA) produced by chlorofluorocarbons. This was the start of the concept of radiative forcing [Ramaswamy et al, 2019].

NASA Goddard began copying the 1967 M&W approach as described in papers by Wang and Domoto [1974] and by Wang et al [1976] (H76). Their primary interest was radiative transfer analysis. They chose to ignore the limitations imposed by the M&W model simplifications and treated the mathematical artifacts as real temperature changes. There was no attempt to perform any thermal engineering calculations of the surface temperature to validate their model results. The role of moist convection in surface energy transfer was ignored. Surface energy transfer is discussed in detail by Clark and Rörsch [2023] (CR23). NASA failed to provide any oversight of these activities. With H81, the Goddard group added at least three more fundamental scientific errors to the M&W model and ‘tuned’ the mathematical artifacts generated by their one dimensional radiative convective (1-D RC) model to match a ‘global mean temperature record’ created from available weather station data. By this time, they were trapped in web of lies of their own making. Melodramatic prophecies of the global warming apocalypse became such a good source of research funding that the scientific process of hypothesis and discovery collapsed. Scientific dogma has now degenerated into the ‘Imperial Cult of the Global Warming Apocalypse’. Irrational belief in the global warming artifacts created by the climate models has become a prerequisite for funding in main stream climate science. The underlying climate equilibrium assumption was never challenged. An elaborate modeling ritual based on pseudoscientific radiative forcings, feedbacks and the climate sensitivity to a ‘CO₂ doubling’ gradually evolved [Ramaswamy et al, 2019]. Little has changed since 1981 except that computer technology has improved significantly and the models have become a lot more complex. However, the underlying assumptions remain the same. The fundamental error is still the equilibrium assumption. This was conveniently summarized by Knutti and Hegerl [2008].

“When the radiation balance of the Earth is perturbed, the global surface temperature will warm and adjust to a new equilibrium state”.

Such an equilibrium state does not exist. An LWIR radiative forcing produced by an increase in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration does not change the radiation balance of the earth. Nor can such a ‘radiative forcing’ cause a measurable change in ocean or land surface temperatures. Eisenhower’s warning about the corruption of science by government funding has come true. The H81 paper is riddled with errors. The authors already believed that an increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentration would cause global warming. They did not allow scientific reason or measured data to change their beliefs. The earth’s climate was in equilibrium. This was built into their 1-D RC model. They had to make the model appear to work. They wanted their paychecks. They were no longer scientists. Their models had become political models that were tuned to give the desired results needed for continued government funding.

Based on the analysis presented below, there are nine errors (or groups of similar errors) in H81:

An IR radiative forcing (increase in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration) does not change the energy balance of the earth.
There is no greenhouse effect temperature.
The LWIR flux is coupled to the turbulent convection in the tropospheric heat engine.
The mathematical artifacts created by the M&W assumptions are accepted without question as real surface temperature changes.
The surface energy transfer processes, in particular the coupling of the LWIR flux to the wind driven latent heat flux are ignored in their ‘slab’ ocean model.
The discussion of radiative perturbations to the 1-D RC model has nothing to do with the earth’s climate.
The role of the ocean oscillations, particularly the Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO) in setting the global mean temperature is ignored.
Any increase in surface temperature from a ‘CO₂ doubling’ is too small to measure.
A contrived set of ‘radiaitve forcings’ is used to ‘tune’ the 1-D RC model so that the output artifacts appear to match the global mean temperature series.

These areas will now be considered in more detail.

An IR Radiative Forcing (Increase in Greenhouse Gas Concentration) does not Change the Energy Balance of the Earth

The authors start out:

"Atmospheric CO₂ increased from 280 to 300 parts per million in 1880 to 335 to 340 ppm in 1980 mainly due to burning of fossil fuels....

The CO₂ abundance is expected to reach 600 ppm in the next century, even if growth of fossil fuel use is low."

Figure 1a show the measured increase in the atmospheric CO₂ concentration [Keeling, 2022] and Figure 1b shows the resulting changes in the LWIR flux [Harde, 2017, Table 1]. There is a small initial decrease in the LWIR flux emitted to space at the top of the atmosphere (TOA) and a similar increase in the LWIR flux emitted from the lower troposphere to the surface.

While the changes in concentration are correct, the authors fail to provide any quantitative thermal engineering analysis of the effect of the changes in LWIR flux on the surface temperature.

"Carbon dioxide absorbs in the atmospheric ‘window’ from 7 to 14 micron which transmits thermal radiation emitted by the earth’s surface and lower atmosphere. Increased atmospheric CO₂ tends to close this window and cause outgoing radiation to emerge from higher colder levels, thus warming the surface and lower atmosphere by the so called greenhouse mechanism. The most sophisticated models suggest a mean warming of 2 to 3.5 °C for doubling of the CO₂ concentration from 300 to 600 ppm."

Later, on p 958 the authors add:

"Our calculations include the weak CO₂ bands at 8 to 15 μm, but the strong 15 μm CO₂ band, which closes one side of the 7 to 20 μm H2O window causes ≥90% of the CO₂ warming."

They also failed to consider the effects of molecular line broadening that decouple the upward and downward LWIR flux. Almost all of the downward LWIR flux reaching the surface originates from within the first 2 km layer above the surface [CR23, Clark, 2013]. This is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: a) Transition from absorption-emission to free photon flux as the linewidth decreases with altitude. Single H₂O line near 231 cm^-1. b) Linewidths for H₂O and CO₂ lines in the 590 to 600 cm^-1 spectral region for altitudes of 0, 5 and 10 km. c) Cumulative fraction of the downward flux at the surface vs. altitude for surface temperatures of 272 and 300 K, each with 20 and 70% relative humidity (RH). Almost all of the downward flux reaching the surface originates from within the first 2 km layer. This is the location of the lower tropospheric reservoir.

The concept of radiative forcing is based on an empirical correlation between the change in flux at TOA and a change in surface temperature. In reality, a change in flux produces a change in the rate of heating or cooling of a thermal reservoir (air parcel, or thin surface layer). The change in temperature of this reservoir has to be determined by dividing the change in heat content or enthalpy of the reservoir over a given time period by the local heat capacity. Once the temperature and species profile are specified, a radiative transfer calculation can determine the atmospheric radiation field to high accuracy. However, the calculation of the change in flux (radiative forcing) at TOA is insufficient. The radiative transfer calculation has to be extended to include the rates of heating or cooling at different levels in the atmosphere. These calculations are already incorporated into the climate models, but they are not usually extracted and analyzed. The calculation of the total LWIR cooling rate used in MW67 was discussed by Stone and Manabe [1968]. However, there was no attempt to move away from the constraints introduced by the equilibrium assumption. The coupling to the turbulent convection in the lower troposphere was not considered.

In spite of their expertise in radiative transfer analysis, the authors of H81failed to consider the total atmospheric cooling rates produced by the LWIR emission to space and the change in cooling rate produced by a change in the atmospheric CO₂ concentration. The total tropospheric cooling rate for the tropical atmosphere is in the 2 to 2.5 K per day range. A doubling of the CO₂ concentration produces a slight decrease in the cooling rate in the troposphere of up to +0.08 K per day. At a lapse rate of -6.5 K km^-1, an increase in temperature of +0.08 K is produced by a decrease in altitude of approximately 12 meters. This is equivalent to riding an elevator down four floors. The tropospheric cooling rate and the change in this cooling rate produced by a doubling of the CO₂ concentration are shown in Figure 3a and 3b [Feldman et al, 2008 Iacono et al, 2008]. The calculation of the total cooling rates by Stone and Manabe is shown in Figure 3c. Calculations by Ackerman in 1979, before the publication of H81 of both the total cooling rate and the change in cooling rate produced by a CO₂ doubling are shown in Figures 3d and 3e [Ackerman, 1979].

The authors have also chosen to ignore the coupling of the tropospheric LWIR flux to the convection. As the warm air rises from the surface, it expands and cools. Internal molecular energy is converted to gravitational potential energy. Within the plane parallel atmosphere approximation, an air parcel in the troposphere emits LWIR radiation upwards and downwards at the local air temperature. It also absorbs LWIR radiation from above and below. In addition, the temperature changes with the local lapse rate as the air parcel changes altitude. This is illustrated in Figure 4a. Most of the initial absorption from an increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentration occurs in the P and R branches of the v₂ CO₂ band near 640 and 700 cm^-1. There is also some weaker absorption by the CO₂ overtone bands near 950 and 1050 cm^-1 [Wijngaarden and Happer, 2022]. The slight warming produced by these absorptions in the troposphere is then dissipated by a combination of wideband LWIR emission across all of the atmospheric emission bands and coupling to the convection. Some of the thermal energy is converted to gravitational potential energy followed by LWIR emission at a later time. This is illustrated schematically in Figure 4b.

During the day, over land, under solar illumination, the boundary layer near the surface can be very turbulent, with both upward and downward motion related to convective plumes. Figure 5 shows variations in vertical velocity that reach ±2 m s^-1 in the surface boundary layer up to 2 km in altitude reported by Gibert et al [2007]. This is from 2 micron Doppler heterodyne LIDAR measurements recorded over 10 hours at the École Polytechnique, south of Paris, July 10th 2005. At 2 m s^-1, a 1 km change in altitude occurs in approximately 10 minutes. The change in temperature depends on the local lapse rate. The upper limit is set by the lapse rate for dry air, -9.8 K km^-1. Any small changes in tropospheric temperature, such as the +0.08 K per day heating produced by a CO₂ doubling are too small to measure when they are coupled to this turbulent boundary layer. A ‘CO₂ doubling’ or any other increase in atmospheric ‘greenhouse gas’ concentration does not change the energy balance of the earth.

On the first page, the authors also state:

"The major difficulty in accepting this theory has been the absence of observed warming coincident with the historic CO₂ increase, in fact the temperature in the N. Hemisphere decreased by about 0.5 °C between 1940 and 1970, a time of rapid CO₂ build up. "

Here the authors fail to recognize that the dominant term in the observed temperature record is the Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO). This is discussed in more detail below in relation to the temperature record shown in H81 figure 3.

Here, the authors have simply inserted the calculated average planetary LWIR flux into the Stefan-Boltzmann equation to derive the emission temperature. They have chosen to ignore the spectral distribution of the outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) emitted to space. By 1981, satellite measurements of the spectral distribution of the OLR had been available for over a decade. Measurements of the LWIR flux at the top of the atmosphere (TOA) using the Michelson interferometer (FTIR spectrometer) on the Nimbus 4 satellite clearly showed that the LWIR flux at TOA did not have the spectral distribution of a blackbody radiator near 255 K [Hanel et al, 1971]. This is illustrated in Figure 6. The LWIR flux to space at TOA is simply a cooling flux as shown above in Figure 3. It should not be used to define a temperature. The spectral distributions shown in Figure 6 were recently discussed by Wijngaarden and Happer [2022].

Here, the authors are really talking about the tropospheric heat engine and the LWIR emission to space from the cold reservoir of this engine. They do not seem to understand that the LWIR flux cannot be separated from the convective mass transport. The troposphere functions as an open cycle heat engine that transports part of the surface heat by convection to the middle to upper troposphere. From here it is radiated to space, mainly by the water bands. The spectral band cooling rates are illustrated in Figure 3a above.

As the moist air rises through the troposphere it must interact with both the gravitational field and the angular momentum or rotation of the earth. This leads to the formation of the Hadley, Ferrel and polar cell convective structure, the trade winds, the mid latitude cyclones/anticyclones and the ocean gyre circulation. The LWIR flux should not be separated and analyzed independently of the other flux terms. It is an integral part of the energy transfer processes that determine the earth’s weather patterns. The tropospheric heat engine and the surface energy transfer processes at the ocean-air and land-air interfaces are shown schematically in Figure 7 (CR23).

At the surface, the upward and downward LWIR fluxes combine to establish an LWIR exchange energy (upward - downward LWIR flux) that reduces the net LWIR cooling emission from the surface. Within the spectral regions of the main LWIR absorption/emission bands, when the surface and air layers are at similar temperatures, photons are exchanged without any significant heat transfer. The net LWIR cooling of the surface is limited to the emission into the atmospheric transmission window. This is illustrated in Figure 8. As shown above in Figure 2c, almost all of the downward LWIR flux to the surface originates from within the first 2 km layer above the surface. In order to dissipate the absorbed solar flux, the surface warms up so that the excess heat is removed by evapotranspiration (moist convection). The surface temperature is determined by the coupling of four main flux terms to the surface thermal reservoir. These are the solar flux, the net LWIR flux, the evapotranspiration and the subsurface thermal transport. (This does not include rain or freeze-thaw effects). The four flux terms are interactive and should not be separated and analyzed independently of each other (CR23). A change in surface temperature has to be determined by dividing the change in heat content or enthalpy of the surface reservoir by the local heat capacity. The energy transfer processes are different at the land-air and ocean-air interfaces and have to be analyzed separately.

Figure 8: Downward LWIR flux to the surface for surface and air temperatures of 288 K. The spectral range is from 100 to 1500 cm^-1 at a resolution of 2 cm^-1. These spectra are from MODTRAN calculations with a CO₂ concentration of 400 ppm and a surface RH of 70% using the mid latitude summer model [MODTRAN, 2021]. The main H₂O and CO₂ bands are labeled. Within the main absorption/emission bands, the molecular lines are broadened into a quasi-continuous blackbody. The downward LWIR emission establishes an exchange energy with the upward LWIR flux from the surface that limits the net LWIR cooling flux to that emitted into the LWIR atmospheric transmission window.

The authors then return to the equilibrium climate assumption and incorrectly apply conservation of energy to the initial decrease in LWIR flux at TOA (‘radiative forcing’) produced by an increase in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration.

"If the atmospheric IR opacity increases, the temperature of the surface and atmosphere will increase until the emission of radiation from the planet again equals the absorbed solar energy."

As shown above in Figures 3 and 4, the small amount of heat produced at each level in the troposphere is dissipated by a combination of wideband LWIR emission and turbulent convection. There is no change to the energy balance of the earth.

The authors then mix the ‘greenhouse effect’ with the tropospheric heat engine for the atmospheres of Mars, Earth and Venus.

"The greenhouse theory can be tested by examination of several planets which provide an ensemble of experiments [sic] over a wide range of conditions. The atmospheric composition of Mars, Earth and Venus lead to mean radiating levels of about 1, 6 and 70 km and lapse rates of Gamma = ~5, 5,5 and 7 °C km^-1, respectively. Observed surface temperatures confirm the existence and order of magnitude of the predicted greenhouse effect (Eqn. 3)."

The ‘radiating level’ is set by the spectroscopic properties of the ‘greenhouse gases’ that are involved in the atmospheric radiative transfer. LWIR radiation from below is absorbed and re-emitted at the temperature of the local air parcel as shown above in Figure 4a. This process continues until there is a transition from absorption and emission to a free photon flux as the molecular lines narrow and the number density decreases at higher altitudes. However, the temperature of the air parcel is set by convection within the tropospheric heat engine, not simply by ‘infrared absorption and emission’. The Second Law of Thermodynamics requires that the surface be warmer than the radiating temperature of the cold reservoir of the heat engine [Holmes, 2017, Jelbring, 2003]

What Part of Mathematical Artifact Don’t You Understand?

The authors then proceed to analyze the surface temperature using a modified version of the ‘equilibrium air column’ model published by Manabe and Wetherald (M&W) in 1967. This approach must create spurious climate warming as a mathematical artifact of the simplifying assumptions introduced by M&W.

"A one dimensional radiative convective (1-D RC) model, which computes temperature as a function of altitude, can simulate planetary temperatures more realistically than the zero dimensional model of Eqn. 1. The sensitivity of the surface temperature in the 1-D RC models to changes in CO₂ is similar to the sensitivity of the mean surface temperature in the global 3-D models. This agreement does not validate the models, it only suggests that the one dimensional models can simulate the effect of certain basic mechanisms and feedbacks. But the agreement does permit useful studies of global mean temperature change with a simple 1-D model."

The assumptions used by M&W were clearly stated on the second page of their 1967 paper.

At the top of the atmosphere, the net incoming solar radiation should be equal to the net outgoing long wave radiation.
No temperature discontinuity should exist.
Free and forced convection and mixing by the large scale eddies prevent the lapse rate from exceeding a critical lapse rate equal to 6.5 C km^-1.
Whenever the lapse rate is subcritical, the condition of local radiative equilibrium is satisfied.
The heat capacity of the earth’s surface is zero.
The atmosphere maintains the given vertical distribution of relative humidity (new requirement).

These assumptions contain three fundamental scientific errors. 1) There is no flux balance at TOA, 2) the heat capacity and the effects of moist convection have to be included in the surface energy transfer and 3) the relative humidity distribution is not fixed. In addition, molecular line broadening in the lower troposphere means that the upward and downward LWIR flux are not equivalent (see Figure 2).

Instead of correcting the underlying errors related to the equilibrium assumption used by M&W, Hansen et al [1981] added three more invalid assumptions. First, a ‘slab’ ocean was added to the M&W model without any consideration of the surface energy transfer effects. Second, a prescribed mathematical ritual of ‘radiative forcing’ was introduced. This was based on the perturbation of an equilibrium climate state by a ‘doubling’ of the CO₂ concentration followed by the transition to a new equilibrium state with a higher surface temperature. Small changes in equilibrium LWIR flux were assumed to be capable of changing the surface temperature including the oceans. No thermal engineering calculations of the change in surface temperature were performed to validate the model. Third, there was a ‘bait and switch’ change from ‘equilibrium’ surface and air temperatures to the weather station temperature record. The role of ‘natural variations’ in temperature record, specifically the 1940 peak of the Atlantic Multi-decadal oscillation were ignored.

The authors first describe the sensitivity of their model to various processes as shown in Figure 9. Here the sensitivity is the increase in surface temperature produced by doubling of the CO₂ concentration from 30 to 600 ppm. This is just the pseudoscientific mathematical artifact created by the M&W assumptions. Model 4, with a ‘sensitivity’ of 2.8 K was selected for additional analysis. The increase in downward LWIR flux to the surface is given as 3.9 or 4.0 W m^-2.

Figure 9: Hansen et al 1981, Table 1 - Equilibrium surface temperature increase due to doubled CO₂ (from 300 to 600 ppm) in 1D-RC models. Model 1 has no feedbacks affecting the atmosphere’s radiative properties. Feedback factor f specifies the effect of each added process on model sensitivity to doubled CO₂. F is the equilibrium thermal flux into the ground if T_s is held fixed (infinite heat capacity) when CO₂ is doubled. Abbreviations: FRH, fixed relative humidity, FAH, fixed absolute humidity, 6.5LR, 6.5 °C km^-1 limiting lapse rate, MALR, moist adiabatic lapse rate, FCA, fixed cloud altitude, FCT, fixed cloud temperature, SAF, snow/ice albedo feedback and VAF, vegetation albedo feedback.

Where is the Wind Driven Ocean Latent Heat Flux?

The authors then introduce a ‘slab’ ocean model with a mixed ocean layer 100 m thick and a thermocline layer below this. They ignore the surface energy transfer and only consider the time delays related to the increase in heat capacity. The penetration depth of the LWIR flux into the oceans is less than 100 micron [Hale and Querry, 1972]. Here it is fully coupled to the wind driven evaporation or latent heat flux. Using long term zonal averages from Yu et al, [2008], the sensitivity of the latent heat flux to the wind speed is at least 15 W m^-2/m s^-1 over the ±30° latitude bands. The entire ‘CO₂ doubling’ flux of 4 W m^-2 is dissipated by an increase in wind speed of 27 cm s-1 or approximately 1 km per hour. The normal (1 sigma) variation of the wind speed in the ±30° latitude bands is 2 m s^-1 at an average wind speed of approximately 6 m s^-1 with larger wind gust variations. The increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentration since the start of the Industrial Revolution is near 140 ppm, from 280 to 420 ppm. This has produced an increase in downward LWIR flux of approximately 2 W m^-2 that is dissipated by an increase in wind speed of 13 cm s^-1 (see Figure 1). At present, the annual average increase in CO₂ concentration is near 2.4 ppm. This corresponds to an increase in downward LWIR flux of 0.034 W m^-2 per year which is dissipated by an increase in wind speed of approximately 2 mm per year. The penetration depth of the LWIR flux into the oceans is shown in Figure 10 and the sensitivity of the latent heat flux to the wind speed is shown in Figure 11. Based on this discussion, it is impossible for the increase in downward LWIR flux from the lower troposphere to the surface produced by a ‘CO₂ doubling’ to cause any measurable change in ocean surface temperature. The authors chose to ignore physical reality and simply assumed that the increase in LWIR flux had to cause the expected climate warming in their oversimplified equilibrium air column model. This is shown in Figure 12a. Hansen et al were not the only ones to consider a ‘slab’ ocean model. Manabe and Stouffer [1980] created 4xCO₂ induced warming in a single ‘mixed layer’ ocean. A two layer slab ocean model was described by Cess and Goldenberg [1981] and ocean-atmosphere coupling was discussed by Dickinson [1981]. The ocean warming from a quadrupling of the CO₂ concentration calculated by Manabe and Stouffer is shown in Figure 12b.

Did You Even Read the M&W Assumptions?

The authors then proceed to consider ‘radiative climate perturbations’ in their model. They start out:

"Identification of the CO₂ warming in the observed climate depends on the magnitude of climate variability due to other factors. Most suspected causes of global climate change are radiative perturbations which can be compared to identify those capable of counteracting or reinforcing the CO₂ warming."

Figure 13 (Hansen et al, figure 2) shows the estimated changes in surface temperature produced by a variety of ‘radiative perturbations’, now known as ‘radiative forcings’ [Ramaswamy et al, 2019]. As discussed above, the initial decrease in LWIR flux at TOA produced by an increase in ‘greenhouse gas’ concentration does not change the energy balance of the earth. Any small amount of heat produced in the troposphere is dissipated by a combination of wideband LWIR emission and turbulent convection. The changes in temperature are the result of the mathematical artifacts created by the climate equilibrium and related simplifying assumptions used in the 1-D RC model. The magnitude of the changes can be ‘tuned’ by adjusting the feedbacks in the model.

The role of the AMO in setting the surface air temperature has been misunderstood or ignored for a long time. The first person to claim a measurable warming from an increase in CO₂ concentration was Callendar in 1938. [Callendar, 1938]. The warming that he observed was from the 1910 to 1940 warming phase of the AMO and not from CO₂. During the 1970s there was a ‘global cooling’ scare that was based on the cooling phase of the AMO from 1940 to 1970 [McFarlane, 2018, Peterson et al, 2008, Douglas, 1975, Bryson and Dittberner, 1976]. In H81, Hansen et al chose to ignore the 1940 AMO peak in their analysis of the effects of CO₂ on the weather station record. Similarly, Jones et al conveniently overlooked the 1940 AMO peak when they started to ramp up the modern global warming scare in 1986 and 1988 [Jones et al, 1986, 1988]. The IPCC also ignored the AMO peak in its first assessment report in 1990 [IPCC 1990, FAR WG1 fig. 11 SPM p. 29] and it has continued to ignore it as shown in AR6 WG1 TS CS Box 1 fig. 1c p. 61 [2021]. This is illustrated in Figure 15. The AMO and the periods of record used are shown in Figure 4a. The AMO consists of a long period oscillation near 60 years superimposed on a linear temperature recovery from the Little Ice Age (LIA) [Akasofu, 2010]. The temperature records used by Callendar, Douglas, Jones et al, Hansen et al and IPCC 1990 and 2021are shown in Figures 4b through 4g. The Keeling curve showing the increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentration is also shown in Figures 4d through 4g [Keeling, 2023].

Figure 15: a) AMO anomaly and HadCRUT4 global temperature anomaly, aligned from 1860 to 1970, b) temperature anomaly for N. temperate stations from Callendar [1938], c) global cooling from Douglas [1975], d) global temperature anomaly from Jones et al, [1986] e) global temperature anomaly from Hansen et al, [1981], f) and g) global temperature anomaly from IPCC 1990 and IPCC 2021. The changes in CO₂ concentration (Keeling curve) are also shown in d) through g). The periods of record for the weather station data are also indicated.

Too Small to Measure Means Too Small to Measure

The authors then go on to discuss the presumed effects of the volcanic eruption of Mount Agung in 1963. However, this discussion is based on the mathematical artifacts created by their 1-D RC model. There is no reason to expect that the model results for aerosols to be any better than those for CO₂. The authors then describe the changes in flux produced in their 1-D RC model when the CO₂ concentration is doubled from 300 to 600 ppm and their model responds by ‘adjusting’ to a new ‘equilibrium state’ with a higher surface temperature. This is shown in Figure 16 (Hansen et al, figure 4). Again, the temperature changes are just mathematical artifacts of the 1-D RC model. In reality, any small amount of heat released in the troposphere is re-emitted as wideband LWIR emission or dissipated by turbulent convection (see Figures 3 and 4). There is no change to the energy balance of the earth and no change in surface temperature. Unfortunately, the concept of radiative forcing has become accepted as part of the Imperial Cult of the Global Warming Apocalypse. A very similar argument to Figure 16 was used in Chapter 8 of the Fifth IPCC Assessment WG1 Report [IPCC, 2013] over 30 years later. Figure 17 shows the equilibrium climate ‘adjustment’ to a radiative forcing from figure 8.1 of the IPCC report.

Figure 17: (Figure 8.1 AR5, WGp 1 [2013]). Cartoon comparing (a) instantaneous RF, (b) RF, which allows stratospheric temperature to adjust, (c) flux change when the surface temperature is fixed over the whole Earth (a method of calculating ERF), (d) the ERF calculated allowing atmospheric and land temperature to adjust while ocean conditions are fixed and (e) the equilibrium response to the climate forcing agent. The methodology for calculation of each type of forcing is also outlined. ΔT₀ represents the land temperature response, while ΔT_s is the full surface temperature response. (Updated from Hansen et al., 2005.)

The H81 paper is one of the earliest examples of the use of a contrived set of ‘radiative forcings’ to fraudulently ‘tune’ an equilibrium climate model to match the climate record. This process was adopted by the IPCC and copied by the US Global Climate Research program (USGCRP) [Ramaswamy et al, 2019, Melillo, 2014, Wuebbles et al, 2017]]. The radiative forcings and the climate model simulation of the global mean temperature record published in each of the IPCC Climate Assessment Reports compared to H81 are shown in Figures 19 and 20 [IPCC, 1990, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2013, 2021]. The 1940 AMO peak in the global mean temperature record is indicated by a red asterisk. The practice of separating the radiative forcings into natural and anthropogenic components started with the Third Climate Assessment (TAR). The IPCC used FAR, SAR and TAR to denote the First, Second and Third Assessment Reports, then changed to AR4, AR5 and AR6 for the later reports. AR1, AR2 and AR3 labels are also included on Figures 19 and 20. The ocean oscillations are produced by a natural imbalance between the solar heating and the wind driven cooling of the ocean gyre circulation. Instead of King Canute trying to stop the rising tide, the natural baseline created by the pseudoscientific radiative forcing argument may compared to using the climate models to try and stop the ocean waves and create a flat ocean without the gyre circulation.

The attribution argument used to claim an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events caused by the ‘anthropogenic’ increase in temperature is shown in Figure 21. It is based on changes to the mean and variance for a normal distribution of temperature. As discussed above, a greenhouse gas forcing or wavelength specific decrease in LWIR flux at TOA does not change the surface temperature of the earth. The greenhouse gas forcings and the attribution argument are pseudoscientific nonsense.

The observed warming the global temperature record can be explained as a combination of the warming phase of the AMO, urban heat island effects, changes to the rural/urban mix in the weather stations and various ‘homogenization’ adjustments to the raw data. In addition, the warming of the air in the lower troposphere by air compression related to downslope winds and high pressure domes has been ignored. This is discussed in detail in CR23.

Figure 22 shows the use of a contrived set of radiative forcings to create the global mean temperature record in AR6. Figures 22a and 22b show the time series of radiative forcings from 1750 to 2019 used in the CMIP6 model ensemble and the estimated temperature increases produced by these forcings. Figure 22c and 22d show the calculated global mean temperature anomaly and the separation of this into anthropogenic and natural components. Figure 22e shows the contributions of the AMO, the temperature recovery from the Little Ice Age [Akasofu, 2010] and various ‘adjustments’ to the global mean temperature anomaly [Berger and Sherrington, 2022, Andrews 2017a, 2017b, 2017c, D’Aleo, 2010]. Figure 22f shows the equilibrium climate sensitivities for the climate models in the CMIP6 ensemble. Little has changed since H81. ‘Efficacies’ were added to further ‘tune’ the radiative forcings by Hansen et al in 2005 [Hansen et al, 2005]. The role of the AMO in setting the surface temperature is still ignored. Figure 22e still brackets the climate sensitivity of 2.8 °C used by Hansen et al in 1981. The main change here is that the 1-D RC model used in H81 has been replaced by more complex GCMs.

Figure 22: a) time dependence of the radiative forcings and b) time dependence of the temperature changes derived from a), c) ‘tuned’ temperature record using a contrived set of radiative forcings that appear to simulate the global mean temperature record, d) the separation of the contrived forcings to create fraudulent ‘human’ and ‘natural’ temperature records, e) the contributions of the AMO, UHI etc. to the global mean climate record, f) the [pseudoscientific] equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) estimated from the CMIP6 models (IPCC AR6, WG1, figures 2.10, 7.8, 3.4b and FAQ 3.1 Fig. 1, ECS data from Table 7.SM.5).

The contrived set of radiative forcings used to match the climate model output to the global mean temperature record has also been used to create a fraudulent ‘climate sensitivity’ to CO₂ and to attribute ‘extreme weather events’ to anthropogenic warming (see Climate Post VPCP 18). For example, Otto et al [2013] simply assumed that the HadCRUT4 global mean record was caused by ‘radiative forcing’ and derived both equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) and climate transient response (TCR) from an unproven correlation between the temperature data and the radiative forcings used in the CMIP5 climate model ensemble. Their approach is illustrated in Figure 23. They divided up the HadCRUT4 temperature series into a series of time steps as shown in Figure 23a and assumed that each step was caused by a change in radiative forcing over the same time step as shown in Figure 23b. Using this and estimates of the heat stored in the climate system, mainly by the oceans, they created both ECS and TCR for each time step. These are shown in Figure 23c and 23d. The total radiative forcings and the presumed time evolution of these forcings from IPCC AR5 WG1 are shown in Figures 23e and 23f. In reality, the downward flux to the surface from the LWIR radiative forcings cannot penetrate below the ocean surface and cause any kind of measurable temperature change. Within the ±30° latitude bands they are dissipated at the ocean surface by an increase in wind speed of approximately 13 cm s^-1 (see Figures 10 and 11 above). This is indicated by the red dashed lines in Figure 21f. The equilibrium climate sensitivities for selected climate models used in the CMIP5 ensemble are shown in Figure 23g, from IPCC AR5 WG1 Table 9.5. This is clear evidence that the models have been ‘tuned’ to match the global mean temperature record. The real climate sensitivity is ‘too small to measure’.

The use of radiative forcings to create a spurious ‘climate sensitivity’ to CO₂ have led to absurd claims that increases in the atmospheric CO₂ concentration can cause increases in every imaginable form of ‘extreme weather event’. One of the more egregious examples of this is the annual supplement to the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society ‘Explaining Extreme Events of [Year] from a Climate Perspective’ [Herring et al, 2022]. The series has been published annually since 2012. The BAMS publication guidelines state:

"Each paper will start with a 30 word capsule summary that includes, if possible, how anthropogenic climate change contributed to the magnitude and/or likelihood of the event."

The climate sensitivities created in CMIP5 and CMIP6 model ensembles and other in climate models are used without question to ‘explain’ the observed ‘extreme weather events’ for the year of interest. Natural climate changes related for example to ocean oscillations and blocking high pressure systems have to be ‘enhanced’ by the pseudoscience of radiative forcings.

Conclusions

The modern climate modeling fraud was established by the work described in four papers, two by Manabe and Wetherald MW67 and MW75, and two by Hansen et al, H76 and H81. Little has changed in 40 years. The elaborate pseudoscientific ritual of radiative forcings, feedbacks and climate sensitivity to CO₂ described in Chapter 7 of the Working Group 1 Report in the Sixth climate Assessment [IPCC 2021] can be traced back to H81, the 1981 Hansen et al paper. The main change has been the addition of ‘efficacies’ to the radiative forcings by Hansen et al [2005]. As computer technology has improved, the climate models have become more complex, but the underlying errors are still the same. An infrared ‘radiative forcing’ produced by an increase in atmospheric ‘greenhouse gas’ concentration does not change the energy balance of the earth. The small additional amount of heat added to the troposphere is dissipated by wideband LWIR emission to space and turbulent convection. Any increase in the surface temperature of the earth is too small to measure. Similarly, any increase in the downward LWIR flux to the surface is fully coupled to the wind driven evaporation at the ocean surface and cannot produce a measurable increase in the ocean surface temperature. Over land, the surface temperatures are reset each day by the local weather system passing through. Any increase in the land surface temperature produced by the increase in downward LIWR flux from CO₂ is too small to measure.

The climate modeling fraud has three parts. First, the climate energy transfer processes were oversimplified, starting the nineteenth century with the equilibrium climate assumption. M&W simply copied the ‘equilibrium air column’ model introduced by Arrhenius in 1896 and added 9 or 18 air layers with radiative transfer and related algorithms. They also used a fixed relative humidity distribution that created a ‘water vapor feedback’. This approach had to produce climate warming as a mathematical artifact in the model output. Melodramatic prophecies of the global warming apocalypse became such a good source of research funding that the scientific process of hypothesis and discovery collapsed. The climate modelers rapidly became trapped in a web of lies of their own making. Second, as resources decreased for space exploration and nuclear programs with the end of the cold war, various groups at government agencies such as NASA and DOD, which included the old Atomic Energy Commission with the National Labs, decided to jump on the climate bandwagon. They simply copied and ‘improved’ the M&W work. There was no attempt to conduct any thermal engineering calculations using the time dependent flux terms to validate the climate models. A paycheck was more important. Third, various environmental and political groups decided to exploit global warming to further their own interests.

Climate ‘science’ has degenerated past scientific dogma into the ‘Imperial Cult of the Global Warming Apocalypse’. Irrational belief in the Sacred Spaghetti Plots generated by the equilibrium climate models has become a requirement for research funding. A multi-trillion dollar fraud has evolved to study every aspect of this non-existent problem. Insane restrictions on the use of fossil fuels have been implemented as government policy based on completely fraudulent climate model results. The climate sensitivity to CO₂ used to justify the 1.5 or 2 °C limit in the Paris Accord is pseudoscientific nonsense. Eisenhower’s warning about the corruption of science by government funding has come true. It is time to dismantle this massive fraud.

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